Scientific Research and Writing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Scientific Research and Writing - Assignment Example As a result, its consumption faced the major set back in its making history. Many physicians, as well as nutritionists, warned their patients against consuming large amounts of chocolate. Recent discoveries on biologically active phenol compounds such as cocoa that are currently used in making chocolate has widely changed the perception of the society about the same. In relation to this recent breakthrough extensive and intensive research has been stimulated into looking at the effects of chocolate consumption on ageing, oxidative stress, blood pressure regulation, and in controlling atherosclerosis (Matsui, Ito, Nishimura al, 2005). This research investigates the association between chocolate consumption and the occurrence of acne among college girls from Oklahoma State University. This research seeks to establish the contributions of chocolate in the occurrence of acne among college girls from Oklahoma State University. The research also seeks to validate the hypothesis that chocolate consumption is the major cause of acne among college girls from Oklahoma State University. The null hypothesis guiding this research is that chocolate consumption is not linked to the occurrence of Acne among college girls from Oklahoma State University. 50 female students were used in this experiment. The population was picked at random and divided into five groups (again at random). Four groups will be subjected to consuming milked chocolate at the rates of 10g, 20g, 30g, and 40g respectively. The fifth group will the control group and will be subjected to 0g of chocolate consumed per day. The experiment will be done mainly during the afternoon hours when most of the students are through with their classes and are relatively willing to consume the food. The relationship between chocolate consumption and the occurrence of acne will be determined by

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Essay Example for Free

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Essay The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has been labelled as a picaresque novel. A picaresque novel is an adventure story that involves an anti-hero or picaro who wanders around with no actual destination in mind. The picaresque novel has many key elements. It must contain an anti-hero who is usually described as an underling(subordinate) with no place in society, it is usually told in autobiographical form, and it is potentially endless, meaning that it has no tight plot, but could go on and on. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has moulded itself perfectly to all these essential elements of a picaresque novel. Huck Finn is undeniably the picaro, and the river is his method of travel, as well as the way in which he wanders around with no actual destination. This is due to the fact that the river is in control and not Huck. Furthermore, it is the picaresque style that has also aided in highlighting the escapades that Huck experiences through his travels as those crucial to the novel, but also crucial to such a character as Huckleberry Finn. Huck is the perfect example of a young boy with adventure on his mind, and thus the characterization of Huck as a picaro is done flawlessly. Additionally, as The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn contains all the vital aspects of a picaresque novel and picaro hero, it is these crucial traits that mark it as one of Mark Twains most successful novels, and one of the world’s most famous adventure stories. One of the most important aspects of the picaresque novel is the fact that it must contain a picaro, otherwise known as the anti-hero of the novel. Huck is obviously the picaro in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. A picaro is defined as, a low-born but clever individual who wanders into and out of various affairs of love, danger, and farcical intrigue. These involvements may take place at all social levels and typically present a humorous and wide-ranging satire of a given society (The Gale Group). Huck fits this definition perfectly. Huck isnt accepted by society and doesnt even want to be. He is most comfortable out on his own in the frontier. Furthermore, when the Widow Douglas takes him in and tries to provide him with a good life he doesnt want any part of it: â€Å"The Widow Douglas she took me for her son and allowed she would sivilize me; but it was rough living in the house all the time, considering how dismal regular and decent the widow was in all her ways, and so when I couldnt stand it no longer I lit out. I got into my old rags and my sugar-hogshead again, and was free and satisfied. † (194) Huck finds civilized life intolerable, but instead prefers to live the life of a free spirit, but he isnt able to do that when the Widow is trying to civilize him. The Widow wants to refine Hucks lifestyle to match hers, but Huck cant stand that type of life and resists it. Huck wants to keep his independence, and he believes that the frontier is the only place where he can do that. Therefore, Hucks unaccepted presence in society, and his unwillingness to fit in is one that proves his existence as a picaro in the picaresque novel. Another characteristic of the picaro is the fact that he is a wanderer, which means that he is the type of character who roams from place-to-place with no set destination in mind. Hucks wandering occurs within the form of his raft on the Mississippi river. The river is an important aspect of Hucks wandering because the river continuously changes course, and there is no way for Huck to direct the river and his raft. If Huck passes a place or location there is no way for him to turn the raft around, but instead he has to continue on down the river. An example of this is when Huck and Jim pass Cairo, which was the one specific destination they had in mind because its where Jim would have been free, It wouldnt do to take to the shore; we couldnt take the raft up the stream, of course. There warnt no way but to wait for dark and start back in the canoe and take the chances (314). In other words, the river basically has a life of its own, and therefore Huck and Jim have to abide by the river’s rules. Another important fact regarding the picaro as a wanderer is the notion that he will change as a result of his travels, the main character often grows intellectually and morally through his various encounters along the path of his journey (Bibliomania). Hucks character matures throughout the novel from that of a boy to one that can be seen as something closer to a man. Huck begins to have a conscience, which proves that he is beginning to mature because he begins to actually think about things, and care about them. Hucks maturation can be observed in the scene where he chooses to tell Mary Jane the truth about the two men posing as her uncles, I got to tell the truth, and you want to brace up, Miss Mary, because its a bad kind and going to be hard to take, but there aint no help for it (420). Hucks maturation is evident here because he cant stand to see Mary Jane and her sisters cheated of the money they deserve, and so happy because their uncles are back when in reality theyre only frauds. Hucks conscience continues to bother him until he tells Mary Jane the truth, and therefore it is apparent that Huck is growing as a result of his travels because his conscience begins to affect him, forcing him to show that he is a good and kind-hearted person. A picaro is often defined as someone who isnt very honest, or straightforward, but instead is something more of a liar. More often than not a picaro has been brought up by a dishonest and unloving family, and therefore has no traditional values. Hucks father was a drunkard, and treated Huck as if he owned him, instead of as a son. Furthermore, Hucks father never acted like a father figure to Huck at all, but instead was cruel and unreliable. Moreover, because of his upbringing Huck had no one to teach him any values, and thus he created his own value system, which was the opposite of the social norm. For example, Huck lied his way through his travels and adventures. His first major lie and the beginning of his adventure was staging his own murder, which enabled him to escape his father. In addition, whenever Huck and Jim met other people along their way some kind of lie always popped out of his mouth. To illustrate this point is the scene where Huck comes along two men in a boat, and Huck wants to surrender Jim, but a fib comes out instead, I wish you would, says I, because its pap thats there, and maybe youd help me tow the raft ashore where the light is. Hes sick-and so is mam and Mary Ann' (310). Huck doesnt even have to think about how to lie because it just happens without any real thought involved. Huck constantly changes his name in his lies. Hence, it is so natural for Huck to lie that it becomes difficult for him to keep track of the names he calls himself within his lies. His lies extend to the point of posing as a young girl to an old woman, but he mixes his names up and is caught in the lie: â€Å"Well, try to remember it, George. Dont forget and tell me its Elexander before you go, and then get out by saying its George Elexander when I catch you. And dont go about women in that old calico. You do a girl tolerable poor but you might fool men, maybe. † (262) Fortunately for Huck, the old woman is a kind-hearted one and lets him go on his way without any real questions. However, one of Hucks major lies occurs during his time with the Duke and the King. They pull a stunt where they charge people to watch them do a revival of a play, despite the fact that they barely know the play or are by no means actors. Consequently, they barely escape from the town on the third night with the money that they had  cheated the townspeople of. Thus, there were many instances where Huck lied and cheated his way through his various encounters and experiences, which ties him in perfectly with the typical picaro stereo-type. A picaresque novel is generally told in autobiographical form. Huck is the narrator within The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, and thus is speaking from the first person point-of-view. This is largely associated with the fact that although Huck tells terrible lies and does some terrible things, it is impossible for the readers not to like Huck. Huck tells the story from his own point-of-view, which enables the readers to see things through Hucks eyes. Huck will explain why hes doing something, and because the readers get Hucks explanation and thoughts on it, it is easy to understand and accept it. Hence, it is easy for the readers to side with Huck. Furthermore, because Hucks thoughts are known the readers are able to see and accept that more often than not Huck actually has a good reason for the things he does. One important notion is the fact that Huck does have a good heart, and this is because Hucks adventure is largely due to keeping Jim safe and free. The readers are able to see Hucks thoughts on Jim and how he really does care about him and his freedom, and this makes Huck a good person with a large heart, despite the way hes acted at certain times. In addition to Huck being the narrator is the fact that the story is not only told through Hucks eyes, but also through his own language. Its obvious that Huck isnt the most educated person, but because the novel is told through Hucks own language it makes the novel all the more realistic to the readers. It is easier to see the story through Huck when the slang he uses is also incorporated into the novel. The fact that Hucks slang became a part of the story as well only served to further root Huck as a believable and more realistic character. Furthermore, Hucks accent became a part of the dialogue in order to define him as a unique character within the novel, one on which the novel was centred on. Hucks accent marks him as a true adventurer, and as someone who truly does prefer the frontier to civilization. For example, if Twain had invented Huck without an accent then his believability as an adventurer wouldnt have seemed quite so real. If Huck had traveled down the river void of his accent or slang then he would not have seemed the true loner and adventurer that Twain made him out to be, which is because he would have spoken in the same educated manner that any well-brought up boy would have. Thus, Hucks slang is as much a part of his lifestyle as it is him. Consequently, it is these combined facts of Hucks first-person narration, the readers ability to see everything hes thinking, and the slang that is incorporated into his dialogue that truly marks Huckleberry Finn as a adventurer, but more importantly as an autobiographical character in a picaresque novel. A story that has been defined as picaresque, such as The Adventures ofHuckleberry Finn can also be said to be potentially endless. A picaresque is often described as an adventure story, and thus if a novel is an adventure story then there really is no reason for the adventures to end. A picaresque is said to be potentially endless because it has no tight plot that has to end at a given time. Instead, the plot can change and continue on into infinity. Another literary term for a picaresque being potentially endless is called beads-on-a-string. It is like a yarn, and there is no exact moment when the story starts to wind down and close, but instead there is always an opportunity to keep the story going. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is the perfect example of this. The entire story is centred on Huck and Jims adventures down the river. Huck is running away from his father, and Jim is running away from the possibility of being sold down the river because hes black, and therefore a slave. Huck and Jims adventures do eventually come to an end, but only because Mark Twain decides to end it, not because it has to end. There is no tight plot structure, such as a need for a climax and falling action because these could easily be taken out allowing Huck to continue telling his story, and the reader would never be any the wiser. Furthermore, there is no exact spot in the story where the reader thinks that the story should begin to wind down, and this is because it is a young boys adventure story. Hucks characterization only works because of the age his character represents. Huck represents eternal boyhood, and thus his adventures can also be seen as eternal. Therefore, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a story that can be potentially endless due to the fact that it is a young boy telling the story who experiences a life of adventures, and there is no reason why those adventures should have to end at any specific time. A picaresque story often involves a picaro that has some kind of sidekick along with him. In the case of Huckleberry Finn, Jim is his sidekick. The sidekick is someone who is a part of the adventure, but isnt seen as the main character, and thus more often than not the readers dont know the sidekicks views or thoughts, or what is known is very limited. Jim is Hucks sidekick, and although Hucks own adventure actually began because he was running away from his father, Jim is the reason that the adventure took the path it did. Jim didnt want to be sold to a slave buyer so instead of taking the chance of being sold he ran away, which is how he came to be Hucks sidekick. They both ran away from different things, and accidentally, but fortunately found each other, Pretty soon he gapped and stretched himself and hove off the blanket-and it was Miss Watsons Jim! I bet I was glad to see him (239). Huck wanted to keep Jim safe and so they decided to go to Cairo where Jim would be free from slavery, en I hear ole missus tell de widder she gwyne to sell me down to Orleans, but she didn want to, but she could git eight hundd dollars for me, en it uz sick a big stack o money she couldn resis' (242). Jim became Hucks sidekick early on in the adventure, and thus the real adventure only began once Jim had become a part of it. However, although it is Hucks adventure, and Jim is Hucks sidekick, the actual adventure itself is about keeping Jim safe and free. Furthermore, both Huck and Jim are running away because they want freedom. Huck wants to be free from his father, and Jim wants to be free from slavery, but by the end of the novel the irony is that Hucks father is dead, and the Widow has set Jim free within her will. Thus, it is Jim that further proves the sidekick mentality within a picaresque novel, and within The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn contains all the elements that any picaresque novel should. Huck Finn is the picaro and alongside him is his sidekick Jim. The adventures that these two encounter along their journey is pure proof of what elements a picaresque novel should include, from lying and cheating to wanderers along a river, to the changes that occur as a result of these adventures. Huck has all the characteristics that a typical picaro or anti-hero should have. Hes dishonest, prefers the frontier to civilization, and hes the narrator of the novel making it in autobiographical form. Therefore, all the aspects within TheAdventures of Huckleberry Finn cement it together to further root it as a picaresque novel with a unique and yet solid picaro as the main character.

William Goldings Lord of the Flies :: Essays Papers

Lord of the Flies Summary One fact about this book should be established from the start - this is not a children's book. The "littluns" and "bigguns" represent members of the human race. The conflict between law and barbarism would have, I believe to be the same had the island been inhabited with adult survivors instead of children. The novel is about a transition from an immensely exciting adventure of some children, to what eventually becomes full-scale war, ending with the arrival of the naval officer who rescued them. Tough I still wonder if they were really saved, considering the atomic war which, at that time was still raging around the globe. The book begins by introducing the two of the characters - Ralph and Piggy. Ralph finds a conch (a shell shaped in such a way that when blown it will sound) and blows it, summoning the rest of the boys, who were on the aeroplane and survived the crash. Last to arrive are the choir, who are described as a "black catterpillar moving along the beach." On closer examination is is found that there is a wide variance in the age of the boys, from about 6 to 12 years of age. From here on in the book the younger boys are simply referred to as the "littluns" and the older boys as "bigguns" although the younger children are referred to more collectively in the story. Ralph is elected chief of the group and his first action is for Jack, Simon and himself to go on a scout to check if the island is really and island or is attached to anything else, they find that it is an island and return to the rest of the boys. It is decided at the meeting held by Ralph that people should only be allowed to speak at meetings if they have possession of the conch, thus giving the conch a special power to the boys. It is also decided that the choir should become hunters for food, with Jack (the choir leader) in charge of them. Above all this though is the importance of a fire being lit and staying alight night and day for a ship to see and hopefully rescue them. At this point a small boy comes forward and tells the boys that he saw a monster which he calls a "beastie" in the woods.

Niccolo Machiavellis The Prince Essay -- Machiaveli Prince Power Essa

Niccolo Machiavelli's The Prince Niccolo Machiavelli's The Prince examines the nature of power and his views of power are still somewhat in existence today. I'll discuss this in this essay, emphasizing the following theses. Machiavelli discusses power over the people, dictatorial power, and power with people, shared power. While it is possible for power with to attain greater prevalence in society, it will not completely eliminate power over. In The Prince, Machiavelli discusses two distinct groups of people, the political elite, including nobles and other princes, and the general public. Today in the United States, the first group, the political elite, includes political leaders, religious leaders, business leaders and the leaders of strong lobbying groups. The composition of the general public has changed little from Machiavelli's time. Machiavelli concentrates on relations between the prince and the political elite. He claims that ambition and dictatorial power drive most nobles and princes. A prince must act with dictatorial power in order to maintain his position. Machiavelli assumes that shared power will not be effective with nobles, since "whether men bear affection depends on themselves, but whether they are afraid will depend on what the ruler does" (Machiavelli, p.60-61). Since the nobles are unforgiving and greedy it would be dangerous if not downright suicidal for a prince to rely on their good will. Equally important, Machiavelli states that a prince, a political leader, has different concerns than the general public. For a prince personal actions, which would be considered immoral or unvirtuous, may save lives or help the prince's country. In this way a prince is not immoral, but instead acts with a morality different in nature from the general public. Machiavelli gives several examples of this. Miserliness is considered a fault. Yet, a miserly prince "will come to be considered more generous when it is realized that his revenues are sufficient to defend himself against enemies that attack him, and to undertake campaigns without imposing special taxes on the people" (p.56). Likewise, starting a war is considered an immoral act by many. Yet, a prince should not allow troubles "to develop in order to avoid fighting a war for wars can not really be avoided, but are merely postponed to the advantage of others" (p.11). Avoiding war may ... ... the ugly political process preceding the results has overshadowed positive results like a lower deficit and improved economy. Clinton is neither feared nor loved by his political opposition, making it difficult for him to produce results without great struggles. The one result remembered by many is that Clinton raised taxes, taking away their property. Thus, Clinton has had difficulty with both appearances and results. One might say that in addition to power, a prince in relations needs political skill with the public. For a politician weaving a good story of one's accomplishments is more important than the accomplishments themselves. Machiavelli's idea of power and how it should be handles as he describes in The Prince can still be used to examine the present. While it's possible to see only the negative uses of power, one can also see the potential for power to promote the common good. Machiavelli would argue that attending to the common good is in a prince's best interests, since it gains the support of the people, something more valuable than any fortress or other expression of power. Works Cited: Machiavelli, Niccolo. The Prince. England: Penguin Classics, 1981.

“Hard Lives” in College

Justifying â€Å"Hard Lives† in College In the article â€Å"The Myth of Inferiority†, the author, Allan Culpepper, talks about people’s point of views about community college students. Unlike most universities or colleges, community college students are older, first generation students, work multiple jobs, and/or have to take care of dependents. Financial stability is the main issue community college students face. Yes, they do have â€Å"hard lives†, but does that justify for excessive absences, rewrite opportunities, and late papers? Hard lives† do not justify excessive absences; however, they do justify rewrite opportunities and late papers. â€Å"Hard lives† do not justify excessive absences simply because they will get too far behind and miss an excessive amount of notes. Along with Mr. Culpepper, â€Å"I have also found students who manage to complete a full load of classes successfully while working three jobs, caring for elderly, and coping with chronic illness†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (330). As in most universities or colleges, these students are already given a certain amount of days for absences.In most cases, six absences are allowed for the semester which is two and half weeks of class. If the students save these absences for emergencies, six absences are more than enough for one semester. Rewrite opportunities are justifiable for students having â€Å"hard lives†. Unlike students who have plenty of time to write papers, some students have long, late work hours. Therefore, these students are not capable of writing their papers to their full potential. Another reason it is justifiable is because some of them have dependents they need to take care of.This makes it hard to find time throughout the day to write their papers. Then again, Mr. Culpepper said, â€Å"many students choose community college for a variety of good reasons such as cost†¦ and flexible schedule† (330). With flexible schedule they do not have an excuse. Bringing in late papers is justifiable for students with â€Å"hard lives† to some extent. Unless students plan to be â€Å"sick†, they never know when they are going to actually be ill. Also, most community students have multiple jobs working many late hours.Since financial stability is their number one priority, they may need to work a double on school days; especially if they are low on financial income. This means they would not be able to go to class and turn in their papers on time. Under these circumstances, there should be an excuse to turn in late papers. â€Å"Student will be students, wherever they are. † (303). However, there should be a limit on the number of late papers you are able to turn in and the consequence of point deduction after so many days.There should be no excuse for excessive absences; however, there should be reasonable understanding for certain situations that are justifiable for rewrite opportunities and late papers. Agreeing with Mr. Culpepper, community college students should receive the same expectations as universities and private colleges. Mr. Culpepper said it best, â€Å"I have learned to maintain a high standard, expect students to meet them, and do whatever I can to help students meet those expectations† (331).Works Cited Culpepper, T. Allen. â€Å"The Myth of Inferiority. † The Norton Mix. Ed. Judy Sieg. New York: Norton, 2012. 327-332.

Learn the pH of Common Chemicals

Learn the pH of Common Chemicals pH is a measure of how acidic or basic a chemical is when its in aqueous (water) solution. A neutral pH value (neither an acid nor a base) is 7. Substances with a pH greater than 7 up to 14 are considered bases. Chemicals with a pH lower than 7 down to 0 are considered acids. The closer the pH is to 0 or 14, the greater its acidity or basicity, respectively. Heres a list of the approximate pH of some common chemicals. Key Takeaways: pH of Common Chemicals pH is a measure of how acidic or basic an aqueous solution is. pH usually ranges from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic). A pH value around 7 is considered neutral.pH is measured using pH paper or a pH meter.Most fruits, vegetables, and body fluids are acidic. While pure water is neutral, natural water may be either acidic or basic. Cleaners tend to be basic. pH of Common Acids Fruits and vegetables tend to be acidic. Citrus fruit, in particular, is acidic to the point where it can erode tooth enamel. Milk is often considered to be neutral, since its only slightly acidic. Milk becomes more acidic over time. The pH of urine and saliva is slightly acidic, around a pH of 6. Human skin, hair, and nails tends to have a pH around 5. 0 - Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)1.0 - Battery Acid (H2SO4 sulfuric acid) and stomach acid2.0 - Lemon Juice2.2 - Vinegar3.0 - Apples, Soda3.0 to 3.5 - Sauerkraut3.5 to 3.9 - Pickles4.0 - Wine and Beer4.5 - Tomatoes4.5 to 5.2 - Bananasaround 5.0 - Acid Rain5.0 - Black Coffee5.3 to 5.8 - Bread5.4 to 6.2 - Red Meat5.9 - Cheddar Cheese6.1 to 6.4 - Butter6.6 - Milk6.6 to 6.8 - Fish Neutral pH Chemicals Distilled water tends to be slightly acidic because of dissolved carbon dioxide and other gases. Pure water is nearly neutral, but rain water tends to be slightly acidic. Natural water rich in minerals tends to be alkaline or basic. 7.0 - Pure Water pH of Common Bases Many common cleaners are basic. Usually, these chemicals have very high pH. Blood is close to neutral, but is slightly basic. 7.0 to 10 - Shampoo7.4 - Human Blood7.4 - Human Tears7.8 - Eggaround 8 - Seawater8.3 - Baking Soda (Sodium Bicarbonate)around 9 - Toothpaste10.5 - Milk of Magnesia11.0 - Ammonia11.5 to 14 - Hair Straightening Chemicals12.4 - Lime (Calcium Hydroxide)13.0 - Lye14.0 - Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) Other pH Values Soil pH ranges from 3 to 10. Most plants prefer a pH between 5.5 and 7.5. Stomach acid contains hydrochloric acid and other substances and has a pH value of 1.2. While pure water free of undissolved gases is neutral, not much else is. However, buffer solutions may be prepared to maintain a pH near 7. Dissolving table salt (sodium chloride) in water does not change its pH. How to Measure pH There are multiple ways to test the pH of substances. The simplest method is to use pH paper test strips. You can make these yourself using coffee filters and cabbage juice, use Litmus paper, or other test strips. The color of the test strips corresponds to a pH range. Because the color change depends on the type of indicator dye used to coat the paper, the result needs to be compared against a chart of standard. Another method is to draw a small sample of a substance and apply drops of pH indicator and observe the test change. Many home chemicals are natural pH indicators. pH test kits are available to test liquids. Usually these are designed for a particular application, like aquaria or swimming pools. pH test kits are fairly accurate, but may be affected by other chemicals in a sample. The most accurate method of measuring pH is using a pH meter. pH meters are more expensive than test papers or kits and require calibration, so they are generally used in schools and labs. Note About Safety Chemicals that have very low or very high pH are often corrosive and can produce chemical burns. Its fine to dilute these chemicals in pure water to test their pH. The value wont be changed, but the risk will be reduced. Sources Slessarev, E. W.; Lin, Y.; Bingham, N. L.; Johnson, J. E.; Dai, Y.; Schimel, J. P.; Chadwick, O. A. (November 2016). Water balance creates a threshold in soil pH at the global scale. Nature. 540 (7634): 567–569. doi:10.1038/nature20139

How to be a Welcome Guest Poster

How to be a Welcome Guest Poster Posting on guest sites is a great way to increase your profile, develop your personal brand – and subtly plug a product or service. Heres how to increase your chances of getting your posts accepted Writing guest posts is a great way to promote your work and build your personal writers brand. Ive done a lot of this recently, to promote my book, Kitten on a Fatberg. Ive spent quite a lot of time sending off ideas, reading submissions guidelines, and liaising with editors. Here are some of the things Ive learned along the way Have something to say   Start Look for topics that are editorial in nature but aligned with your product. My book is a comic novel written with two co-authors, for example, so Ive pitched various ideas to do with writing humour, crowdfunding a novel, collaborating on a book and so on. Research your markets   Its important to make sure theres a good fit between what you want to say and where you might be able to post it. A sci-fi forum may publish lots of guest posters, for example, but if youre a chick-lit author youre probably unlikely to become one of them. You may have a great piece about a popular topic such as productivity or writers block to offer, but if the site has already covered this area extensively, youll probably be unlucky there too. Turn topics into ideas   When presenting ideas, try to entice your editor with a real attention-grabbing headline and a standfirst – that catchy intro para that magazines and newspapers use to lure people into reading the full article. Then, even if you are addressing a popular topic, you can show you have a unique angle on the topic, and you may be in luck. So rather than offering the dull and generic-sounding Top productivity tips, try 7 ways to slay your inner procrastinator, followed Keep it personal Dont blast out the same email to a big list of blogs and websites. Send out a few at a time, personalizing each one, with a brief intro about who you are (which you might also want to tweak each time). Focus on why your ideas might be of interest to readers, get recipients names right, and always Follow the guidelines The biggest bugbear of writing blogs is, quite understandably, submissions from people who havent followed their guidelines. These are always supplied clearly and in lots of detail, so it will seem quite discourteous to an editor if you ignore their requests about formatting, imagery, subject matter, word count, use of links, etc. Some popular blogs will simply reject your ideas or submission out of hand if the guidelines havent been followed. Do as youre told! Editors will almost always want to make a few tweaks to your words. They may want some additional copy from you or ask for words to be cut. They will very often tweak the intro and opening section to make it sit better with their style and approach. Remember editors know their markets and their titles inside out, and if they want some tweaks, it means they want to publish you very soon. So, this is no time to be precious about your writing – go with their editorial decisions and turn any requested amends round asap. Final thought: Keep the promo stuff to a minimum   Theres a quid pro quo in guest posting – you give the editor some content of value, and theyll let you plug your book. But dont overdo the promotional element – if your piece is crammed full of references to your book, it will just come across as one big advert, and it wont be accepted. Writing something thats useful or entertaining for people is the best advertisement for your work, after all.

Civil War Battle of Fort Pulaski

Civil War Battle of Fort Pulaski The Battle of Fort Pulaski was fought April 10-11, 1862, during the American Civil War (1861-1865). Commanders Union Major General David HunterBrigadier General Quincy Gillmore Confederates Colonel Charles H. Olmstead Battle of Fort Pulaski: Background Built on Cockspur Island and completed in 1847, Fort Pulaski guarded the approaches to Savannah, GA. Unmanned and neglected in 1860, it was seized by Georgia state troops on January 3, 1861, shortly before the state left the Union. For much of 1861, Georgia and then Confederate forces worked to strengthen the defenses along the coast. In October, Major Charles H. Olmstead took command of Fort Pulaski and immediately began efforts to improve its condition and enhance its armament. This work resulted in the fort ultimately mounting 48 guns which included a mix of mortars, rifles, and smoothbores. As Olmstead labored at Fort Pulaski, Union forces under Brigadier General Thomas W. Sherman and Flag Officer Samuel Du Pont succeeded in capturing Port Royal Sound and Hilton Head Island in November 1861. In response to the Union successes, the newly-appointed commander of the Department of South Carolina, Georgia, and East Florida, General Robert E. Lee ordered his forces to abandon the outlying coastal defenses in favor of concentrating at key locations further inland. As part of this shift, Confederate forces departed Tybee Island southeast of Fort Pulaski. Coming Ashore On November 25, shortly after the Confederate withdraw, Sherman landed on Tybee accompanied by his chief engineer Captain Quincy A. Gillmore, ordnance officer Lieutenant Horace Porter, and topographical engineer Lieutenant James H. Wilson. Assessing Fort Pulaskis defenses, they requested that a variety of siege guns be sent south including several new heavy rifles. With Union strength on Tybee growing, Lee visited the fort in January 1862 and directed Olmstead, now a colonel, to make several improvements to its defenses including the construction of traverses, pits, and blindage. Isolating the Fort That same month, Sherman and DuPont explored options for bypassing the fort using the adjacent waterways but found that they were too shallow. In an effort to isolate the fort, Gillmore was directed to build a battery on swampy Jones Island to the north. Completed in February, Battery Vulcan commanded the river to the north and west. By the end of the month, it was supported by a smaller position, Battery Hamilton, which was constructed mid-channel on Bird Island. These batteries effectively cut off Fort Pulaski from Savannah. Preparing for the Bombardment As Union reinforcements arrived, Gillmores junior rank became an issue as he was to oversee engineering activities in the area. This resulted in him successfully convincing Sherman to advance him to the temporary rank of brigadier general. As the heavy guns began to arrive at Tybee, Gillmore directed the construction of a series of eleven batteries along the islands northwest coast. In an effort to hide the work from the Confederates, all construction was done at night and covered with brush before dawn. Laboring through March, a complex series of fortifications slowly emerged. Despite work moving forward, Sherman, never popular with his men, found himself replaced in March by Major General David Hunter. Though Gillmores operations were not altered, his new immediate superior became Brigadier General Henry W. Benham. Also an engineer, Benham encouraged Gillmore to quickly finish the batteries. As sufficient artillerymen were not present on Tybee, training also commenced teaching infantrymen how to work the siege guns. With work completed, Hunter desired to commence the bombardment on April 9, however torrential rains prevented the battle from commencing. The Battle of Fort Pulaski At 5:30 AM on April 10, the Confederates awoke to the sight of the completed Union batteries on Tybee which had been stripped of their camouflage. Assessing the situation, Olmstead was disheartened to see that only a few of his guns could bear on the Union positions. At dawn, Hunter dispatched Wilson to Fort Pulaski with a note demanding its surrender. He returned a short time later with Olmsteads refusal. The formalities concluded, Porter fired the first gun of the bombardment at 8:15 AM. While the Union mortars dropped shells on the fort, the rifled guns fired on the barbette guns before switching to reduce the masonry walls at the forts southeast corner. The heavy smoothbores followed a similar pattern and also attacked the forts weaker eastern wall. As the bombardment continued through the day, Confederate guns were put out of action one by one. This was followed by the systematic reduction of Fort Pulaskis southeast corner. The new rifled guns proved particularly effective against its masonry walls. As night fell, Olmstead inspected his command and found the fort in shambles. Unwilling to submit, he elected to hold out. After sporadic firing during the night, the Union batteries resumed their assault the next morning. Hammering Fort Pulaskis walls, the Union guns began opening a series of breaches in the southeast corner of the fort. With Gillmores guns pummeling the fort, preparations for an assault to be launched the next day moved forward. With the reduction of the southeast corner, Union guns were able to fire directly into Fort Pulaski. After a Union shell nearly detonated the forts magazine, Olmstead realized that further resistance was futile. At 2:00 PM, he ordered the Confederate flag lowered. Crossing to the fort, Benham and Gillmore opened surrender talks. These were quickly concluded and the 7th Connecticut Infantry arrived to take possession of the fort. As it was a year since the fall of Fort Sumter, Porter wrote home that Sumter is avenged! Aftermath An early victory for the Union, Benham and Gillmore lost one killed, Private Thomas Campbell of the 3rd Rhode Island Heavy Infantry, in the battle. Confederate losses totaled three severely wounded and 361 captured. A key result of the fight was the stunning performance of the rifled guns. Tremendously effectively, they made masonry fortifications obsolete. The loss of Fort Pulaski effectively closed the port of Savannah to Confederate shipping for the remainder of the war. Fort Pulaski was held by a reduced garrison for the rest of the war, though Savannah would remain in Confederate hands until taken by Major General William T. Sherman in late 1864 at the culmination of his March to the Sea.

Strategic Project Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Strategic Project Management - Essay Example That however can hardly be the case. When we speak of projects, we are speaking of elements within a whole. These elements cannot be discrete, but have to in some way or the other complement each other for the fulfillment of the general objective of development and growth of the organization. Adopting a more holistic view, an organization is concerned with overall business development that would necessitate what has been termed as Business Management. Classical Business Management emerged at the very beginning of the 20th Century. Project Management, on the other hand, was viewed almost independent of Business Management and was expected to provide the most effective and efficient means of producing the deliverables that a project was intended for. The Classical Model of Project Management which started somewhere in the fifties and sixties of the 20th Century, was primarily conceived to plan and control the timelines and costs for large projects in the aeronautical and construction industries. This model basically defined the logical sequences of different activities involved in the project along with the time, cost and other resources that each activity would require. Thus, Business Management and Project Management were viewed as distinct disciplines, or in other words, the business and the projects were thought to be disparate entities within the same organization. However, the 1980s heralded the unprecedented development of Information and Communication Technology opening up new channels of communication and new avenues for business on a world-wide scale. Changes swept over all sectors of activities, including businesses. Globalization broke down many conventional barriers, markets were de-regulated, a new market-driven economy emerged, and business organizations began to face global competition. The shelf life of products and services began to grow shorter and shorter, some times expiring even before the products

General Principles of Law. The Law of Contract Essay

General Principles of Law. The Law of Contract - Essay Example In the contract law, mistakes are classified as non est factum, unilateral and bilateral. Non est factum relates to written contracts, where a party to the contract, claims that the contract document is not the document that it had signed. Mistakes constitute a very difficult and complicated area of the law of contract and relate to the time of formation of the contract. There are two types of mistakes, agreement mistakes take place when either the parties are at cross purposes or one party is mistaken and this is known to the other party. In Smith v. Hughes, 1871, the plaintiff sold oats to the defendant who believed, mistakenly, that these were old. The court upheld the defendant's decision not to accept these oats. The other type of mistake is the common mistake, in this both parties contract on the basis of a mutual mistake and the courts in certain circumstances set aside the contract. In Bell v. Lever Brothers, 1932, The Lever Bros Ltd appointed Bell as the managing director wi th the service condition that he could not make any secret profits. Bell breached this agreement and made secret profits; in the meanwhile, the company made Bell redundant and paid for the same. Later on the company came to know that Bell had made secret profits and proceeded legally to recover the redundancy payment. The Court of Appeal accepted the Company's plea but the House of Lords held that the company was not entitled to have this amount returned as the mistake was not sufficiently fundamental. Under common law mistakes are voidable contracts. Unilateral mistakes are those in which one party is mistaken and the other party is aware of this. Bilateral mistakes are those in which both parties are mistaken. The forms of bilateral mistakes are mutual, when both the parties to the contract are mistaken about different things. On the other hand bilateral mistakes are termed as common when both the parties are mistaken about the same thing. Mistakes as to the terms of a contract imply that the presence of a mistake in respect of the terms of a contract makes the contract void. The essential ingredients of such mistakes are that one party is mistaken and this is known to the other party. Such contracts are deemed to be void. In the case Webster V. Cecil, 1861, the defendant rejected an offer of 2000 and subsequently sent an offer letter to the plaintiff in which, he mistakenly offered to sell the property for 1250 instead of 2250. The plaintiff was aware of this mistake and when he tried to enforce the contract the court rejected his claim stating that the contract was void due to mistake of terms. Mistake as to identity are those in which a party to a contract impersonates another person in order to obtain goods or services, preferentially. There are two situations where the law recognizes the mistake as to identity. First, situations where the parties are face to face while making the contract and second, situations where the parties are not face to face and are at a distance while making the contract. In such situations the contract will be deemed to be void for mistake, if the plaintiff is able to establish that the other party's identity was vital to the contract and if the party can establish that it was dealing with a different party which actually exists.

Soccer, The Golden Era Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Soccer, The Golden Era - Essay Example The season went down well for months, and after it was over the approach changed and instead it was merged the selection of league (Mauricio 36). They were divided into A- League teams this league was named along Fifa’s recognition. In the same year, olympics took of, hosted by Atlanta, the men in the olympic did not perform well as it was expected, women performed their best and worn in the olympics that year. Then there after, it was soccer, this tournament had a huge number of fans from every corner of the world during the final day of the match. The success of the women in both games motivated the U.S organizing comittee that was taking care of the whole event (Richard 31). The organising body said, â€Å"it will be ready to support any games especially soccer, to improve the talents of people out their and also recognize were their is an effort made towards success.† Meanwhile, the world cup 1998, was about to kick of, and the qualifications were also in a process. The first time that U.S won, was back in the year 1977, this was the first time for U.S to qualify without involving Mexico (William 17). This was a success, and they had to work smart to make sure they retain the posion again. Some of the main team players were also from different states, but all determined to win in every game. FIFA provided coaches kits, and also playing grounds with large holding capacities, reason being the number of fans was growing at a high rate. In 1999, had considerable success stories, but in this same year women’s, soccer was set to begin (James 25). The women’s energy and the determination made people to have high expectations on them the team tied up for the first position before they were to go for the finals. The team, which was made up of youths, had a loyal fan base which was peaceful and also excellent sportsmanship, and respect. The team was the ambassador for young girls as their role

Journal Articles Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Journal Articles - Research Paper Example Although there is not much difference between a manger and a leader most football managers assume the role of maximizing the output of the sports team by effectively organizing, staffing and directing. Moreover, this paper sought to distinguish characteristics that would lead to the appointment of an effective manager to help direct the future success of a sports team. Unfortunately the paper did not distinguish a simple clear cut manager characteristic and postulated that effective management varies across player characteristics and the organizational environment. The next section of the paper distinguished leadership qualities. Quite simply leadership was defined as the attempt to influence others through a variety of mechanisms. Unfortunately the relationship between manager and player is complex and depends largely on the organizational goals (Maintaining team status for example). Without getting into too much detail the paper outlined a great deal of early research pertaining to traits and skills of effective leadership but what proved to be very effective was a strong degree of consistency. Interactional approaches to leadership was covered in brief yet stressed the importance of differentiating between task-oriented football managers and relationship oriented football managers.

Reflection of world's leader Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Reflection of world's leader - Essay Example Often in real life situations, a leader strategically adapts a different style than their usual one or uses a combination of different leadership styles depending on the people they are dealing with and the situation they are in. (Harvard Business School, 2013). Leadership Styles Though leadership style varies from person to person, the common leadership styles can be categorized as below: Charismatic leadership - In Charismatic leadership style, the leaders infuses enthusiasm in their people and motivates their people to achieve and move forward. Charismatic leaders generally tend to believe more in themselves and their decisions more than that of their team. The organization tends to be completely dependent on this type of leader and there is a threat of the whole organization collapsing if the leader leaves. Autocratic leadership - In autocratic leadership, the leader has all the power over his people and is the sole decision maker and does not take any input from the team. Bureau cratic leadership - Bureaucratic leaders follow rules strictly and ensure that everything is done according to procedure. Bureaucratic leadership style proves to be ineffective when it comes to organizations dependent on flexibility and innovation. Transformational leadership - This is considered as the best leadership style used in business. Transformational leaders inspire both their teams and themselves to deliver the best which results in a higher level of commitment and productivity in the organization. Laissez-faire leadership - These leaders give complete freedom to their people in their work and provide their team resources and advice when required. People/relations-oriented leadership - In this style, leaders completely focus on developing and supporting their people. This encourages teamwork and the style is people oriented. Task-oriented leadership - This type of leadership only focuses on getting the job done. They plan, organize and monitor the work. Servant leadership - When a leader simply meets the need of the team, he is classified as a servant leader. Democratic/participative leadership - Democratic leaders take decisions but they take inputs from the team and consider their inputs while taking their final decision. They encourage people engagement and creativity. Transactional leadership - In this style, the team members obey their leaders and enter into a transaction of being paid for their compliance and their effort (Bonnici, 2011). Bill Gates-A Phenomenal Leader One of the most successful business leaders considered in today’s world is Bill Gates. The leadership style of Gates is a combination of Transformational and Charismatic. There are many effective leadership styles as mentioned earlier but in business, a leadership style called "transformational leadership" is often the most effective approach to use. Transformational leaders have integrity, inspire people with a shared vision of the future, set clear goals, motivate people towards these goals, manage delivery, and communicate well with their teams. Charismatic leadership style is similar to transformational style as a charismatic leader is enthusiastic and energetic in motivating his people to perform and achieve. Thus, he has an ability to create commitment and enthusiasm among his team. The difference between charismatic leaders and transformational le

Journal Articles Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Journal Articles - Research Paper Example Although there is not much difference between a manger and a leader most football managers assume the role of maximizing the output of the sports team by effectively organizing, staffing and directing. Moreover, this paper sought to distinguish characteristics that would lead to the appointment of an effective manager to help direct the future success of a sports team. Unfortunately the paper did not distinguish a simple clear cut manager characteristic and postulated that effective management varies across player characteristics and the organizational environment. The next section of the paper distinguished leadership qualities. Quite simply leadership was defined as the attempt to influence others through a variety of mechanisms. Unfortunately the relationship between manager and player is complex and depends largely on the organizational goals (Maintaining team status for example). Without getting into too much detail the paper outlined a great deal of early research pertaining to traits and skills of effective leadership but what proved to be very effective was a strong degree of consistency. Interactional approaches to leadership was covered in brief yet stressed the importance of differentiating between task-oriented football managers and relationship oriented football managers.

Satanism and Suicide in the School Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Satanism and Suicide in the School - Case Study Example For this case study, the potential positive consequences include agreeing with the parents that the Halloween holiday has no place in the school. Negative consequences include disagreeing with the parents and allowing the pupils to attend the Halloween party. The risk here will be discontentment from parents who might decide to transfer their pupils and as a result, be fired by the school’s board (Callison and McAllister 84). I will evaluate the outcome of my decision/the school’s decision based on the pupils performance, parents and boards approval or support, and the number of pupils who joins the school. Reach a compromise agreement with the parents will enhance learning, and improve the school’s performance. In this case study, the problem that needs to be resolved is that of a pupil in the school who has thoughts of committing suicide, and as such, as the principle I need to decide what to do. This process should involve the pupil, his/her parents, his/her immediate teacher and a counselor. I will need to communicate to the pupil, his/her parents, and his/her immediate teacher. The potential positive for this case is getting the pupil to change his attitudes and help the pupil to give away that disturbing wish and thought of wanting to die; simply keeping the pupil alive (Callison and McAllister 106). For this case, a negative consequence will be to fail to get the pupil some substantial help, thus resulting in the pupil committing suicide. I will evaluate my decision based on whether the pupil is able to fend that suicidal feeling and stay alive or not. In case, the pupil does not get help and ends up committing suicide, the other pupils and the entire school community will be devastat ed.  

Interpersonal Communication Essay Example for Free

Interpersonal Communication Essay I joined Eclairs Molders in 2003 immediately after I finished my studies. I had been attached to the organization for more than 3 months during my field attachment. Therefore I had a prior knowledge of the organization and had interacted with several people. When they considered my application for a job, I was happy to join an organization which I had the values oriented towards outcome achievement and had a high degree of people orientation. I was now part and parcel of the organization. When I joined the organization, I was lucky since I was put under the same department that I had served before. I was under the same supervisor who had supervised me during my field attachment. I did not have to be oriented much in the organization culture and other aspects of its operation since I had gone through the same socialization process before. But there was one person who had oriented me in the organization and who remained relevant to me even after I joined the organization for work. That was the secretary in the Production department where I was assigned as an assistant manager. She was still relevant to me as she showed me how I had to start my work and settled in my job. With time we became very close to one another. This was to end up in romantic relationship. In the development of our relationship, we had undergone the full Knapp’s relationship escalation model. I still remember the initiation stage of our relationship when I was directed to her office where she would orient me to the organization. The first 10 to 15 seconds were spent knowing about each other. There was a mutual attraction that developed between us that time as we observed each other’s appearance and manners. Our experimental phase was marked by the continuous interaction that we has as I worked with her guidance. I had a lot of uncertainties about her although I felt more attracted to her. I had to use several strategies in order to reduce this level of uncertainties. Under the uncertainty reduction theory it took on actives and interactive strategies in order to learn more about her. This helped me to gain knowledge and understanding about her. In active strategies, I enquired about her from her friends and also set up several situations under which I would observe her closely like enquiring a lot about work from her. In the interactive strategies, I talked with her most of the time often brining in other topics not related to work so that I would understand her more. Though our relationship remained at this phase when I was in my field attachment it dramatically changed its course when I started working in the company. Although I was assigned another secretary I would still rely on her most of the time and she was also supportive to orient my secretary to her work. We developed a liking for each other and she would spend some of her time in my office sometimes with no official attachment but just chatting with one another. We sure that our relationship had to go beyond business relationship but there was a sense of romance in the air. Our relationship grew and reached the intensification period. At this time we were closer with one another and we disclosed that were wanted to from a lasting romantic relationship. We knew that it would be hard for us to operate in the work place as lovers but we had to our best in order to keep our relationship rolling. Self disclosure was an important aspect that helped to cement our relationship. We developed from the hidden pane to the open pane of Johari window as we opened ourselves to one another. We came to understand our characters and helped each other to understand their characters as well. By undergoing several windows we were able to know each other. Mutual disclosure helped us to know each other well and the trust in our relationship deepened. Following the social penetration theory, we undertook several practices in order to gain closeness in our relationship. This helped our relationship to progress from superficial to intimate. Self disclosure was an important factor in this theory that helped our relationship to grow. We gave rewards from time to time. We all strived to achieve each others satisfaction to help gain stability in our relationship. At first I was not willing to disclosure myself to her. But with time she started disclosing herself and our trust grew. According other norm of reciprocity, I had to disclose myself to her since she had already disclosed herself to me. I found out that she felt better when I disclosed myself to her since she was able to know me well. In the intensifying phase we were able to disclose our love to one another. Our relationship grew and we found ourselves with each other most of the time. At tea break, she would be at my desk while I found myself entering the manager’s office more than office just to pays by her and greet her. Most of the workers around especially the manager and my secretary started noting that there was a growing relationship between us. We would go for lunch together. Slowly we started integrating with tone another. No one wanted to go for lunch or go home alone. After work, we would go to her house and we would have supper together. We started caring for one another. We were like one person. Mine was hers and hers was mine. With were simply inseparable. Most of the time we had to make personal sacrifice in order to accommodate each other. We involved several pro-social strategies in order to gain compromise with one another behavior. Like in any other relationship, we had to make sacrifices to accommodate the other. We made a lot of promises to one another in order to gain compliance. We expressed our positive and negative feelings in order to gain compliance with one another. This helped to build our relationship more and trust each other more. According to the Relationship Dialectics theory as far as connectedness-separateness is concerned with had to make a lot of personal sacrifice in our autonomy for the sake of our relationship. It is not that we did not experience conflict in our relationship but most of time we had to accommodation strategy in order to overcome our conflicts. Many times we accommodate each other but sometimes we had to compromise on a situation when it became too difficult for us to find a solution to the problem. Other time we had to collaborate with one another in order to find a mutually and completely satisfactory solution of our conflict in a win-win situation. At this stage of our relationship, we were sure that we needed each others in our life. Our parent started pressurizing us to get married and stay together. We though that we had the most romantic relationship on earth. We also felt the same need to get married and stay together. But there were other factors that we had to take into consideration before setting down for our marriage. We considered the fact that we had to take time to build ourselves and our relationship before deciding to get married. It was hectic at work to keep our relationship rolling. It was still more difficult to stay in the same department yet in different offices. I found myself delegating most of my secretary duties to my girlfriend and it was evident that she was not auguring well with it. The manager also felt that her secretary was being overburdened to handle his order and my orders as well. In most cases, it was my girlfriend who delegated her work to my secretary. It was like I had assumed her existence and her roles (West and Turner 2000, p. 32). However we did our best to manage our relationship. We had to set time to be together and time to stay at work and carry out our duties. Most of the time the manager complained we were not getting serious with our work and we seemed to value our relationship more than our work. These were some of the difficulties that we had expected from the begging when we decided to be together. Therefore we had to make a lot of sacrifices and commitment most of our time to our work rather than our relationship. But our relationship was not to stay for long. The more it became evident to coworkers that we were in love, the more it became difficult for us to handle our relationship. There were a lot of conflicts that we were able to go through but others became sticky with time. It was just one of such conflicts between maintaining our relationship and carrying out our duties as required that made our relationship difficult to continue with. The conflict As an assistant production manager, I handled most of the incoming production orders from the sales team. I had to vet those order and decide the one which had to be produced first before the others. The work of the manager was just of authorize the production of the orders. Therefore I acted as the main link between the sale department and the production department. On the other hand my secretary and my girlfriend who was the secretary to the production manager linked me with the manager. When I received the orders, I vetted them and gave them to my secretary who would then give them to the Managers secretary for them to be passed to the manager. After the manager signed them, they would follow the same route and come back to me where I would forward them to the production supervisor. This was a complicate change but there was nothing that I could do to make it simpler since that was the culture of the organization. One day, I received a call from the sales department and I was informed of orders that had to be produced within 24 hours. Although we used to handle such orders they were rare and most of our orders were produced within a period of one week. Therefore at this was an urgent order that had to be completed fast. In a normal condition, I was authorized to vet such an order and pass it direct the manager without involving the secretary so that it would be produced within the stipulated time. When I received the orders I decided to take them direct to the manager to be signed. I went to the manager office but I found that he was engaged with another client. For the past tow days, we had not been in good terms with my girlfriend but this was just a normal conflict in a relationship. Therefore when I found that the manager was engaged, we decided to talk with my girlfriend as we waited for the client to finish so that I would see the manager. But our conversation became deep and emotional and I forgot that I had urgent order to be attended to. I became very emotion as my girlfriend seemed to annoy me through the conversation. I just left the order on her table and hurried back to my office apparently very upset from the conversation we had. I did not remember about the orders again. I spent the day in my office attending to other work and I felt very low. The next day in the morning, I go a call from the sales department calling for the packaging of the products as the cline had come to collect them. This was the beginning of the conflict. I called the sales department and informed them that the manager had not signed the orders and therefore they had not been processed. According to the deception theory, I had to manipulate what had happened in order to shift the blame from my office to the manager office although I knew very well that there was a high level of apprehension about the deception in what I was saying. The sales department tried to assimilate the validity of my explanation and immediately it was clear that this as not true. There was some element of deceit in my message. Therefore the sales manager called the production managers office and enquired about the orders. The manager sought to be explained why production manager had not approved the production and yet the office did not communicate to the sales office in order to cancel the orders. The production manager was not aware of any such order and therefore he immediately called me in order to get to the bottom of what had happened. As per my explanation, I told the manager that I had taken a step of handing over the order sot here secretary so that they could be processed easily and I thought that he had not approved those orders. But the secretary had not handed in the order. Amid the conversation and conflict that we had with her, she had forgotten to hand in the order as a matter of urgency and therefore they had not bee approved. Therefore the conflict degraded to be a dyad conflict between me, my girlfriend and the production manager. I shifted the blame to my girlfriend that as the secretary of the manager she had the duty to hand in the orders. The manager on the other and blamed me since I did not treat order with the needed urgency. My girlfriend also blamed me since I did not inform her that the order was urgent and therefore she concentrated on finishing the work that was on her desk first. It ended up as a blame game but between me and her, it was more emotional and entwined to the other conflicts that we had before. Therefore it was a dyad conflict another it was far reaching as it involved deferent department. To me the conflict was more complicated by the emotional bond that I had with the person to who all the blame was falling. I blamed myself since I didn’t do what was right. I just found myself defending my position and forgot all the sacrifices that we had made in the past in our relationship in order to accommodate the other. There was power of love that was entwined in the conflict that made it difficult for me to come over it. At the same time there were office protocols that had to be followed in carrying out the needed activities. The cause of the conflict was vested in the misunderstanding in our relationship and lack of responsibility to my duties. The conflict was difficult to solve coupled with the emotional bond that was between us. In this case the more we tried to come up with solution on how the production could be achieved within hours in order to deliver the products the conflict went back to the start. With the full understanding of the relationship that was between me and his secretary, the production manager became harsher and his usual criticisms of neglecting our duties for the sake of our live escalated once again. There was just one condition that he put for us. It was either we took our relationship out of the work place or one or both of us resign from work and be left at home. His stance made it more difficult to resolve the conflict. But one again there was also the factor of my secretary who argued that she had been neglected in performance of her duties and she was considered to be under the manager’s secretary. With the full understating that both my office and the office of the manager had their own identify and freedom of operation, the manager could not understand how our relationship had fused the operation of both offices such that come of her office tasks were performed by my secretary and my work was performed by his secretary. We had to find a way out of the conflict. We were able to solve the immediate effect of the conflict and we ordered production of the order in a matter of hours. But there was still the problem our work and our relationship that could not be ignored. The manager wanted us to solve it once and for all. At the end the conflict had a destructive effect on our relationship. Coupled with the conflict that we had earlier with my girlfriend, it became difficult to go over the current conflict that we were facing. She accused me of deception and using her as a scape-goat in order to evade the responsibility of what had happened. The trust she had build on me had been deconstructed by one event and our relationship could not take off against or be the same as it had been before. We had entered into a conflict that we could hardly go over. Earlier we had revealed our conflict through accommodating each other and compromise on one situation. But this time she seemed to have taken an avoidance strategy in our conflict. She did not pay attention to what had happened and the ramification it had on our relationship but all she did was to avoid me altogether. She did not appear to pay close attention in order to match the strategies that we could use to solve the problem to the situation that was at our hand. I thought that with time we could recover from the time pressure that was affecting how we resolved our conflict. To me our relationship was more valued and thereof I was ready to compromise and sacrifice myself in order to overcome the conflict to match the situation. But I had used by relative power strategy in order to put the blame on her and I knew she would not forgive me for this. I realized that I was working and therefore I was ready to accommodate her for the sake of our relationship. But she had already reached interpscyhic phase where although she said noting she was more focused on my faults and show used may faults to withdraw from active participation in our relationship. She felt justified in withdrawing from the relationship. But it was over and our relationship entered the terminal stage. First we had differed as I had a ‘me’ stand instead of ‘we’ in the conflict. We were both responsible for the conflict but I had exempted myself from it and accused her. This had acted as the first warning sign that our relationship was just be ending. It had started to dissolve with our earlier conflict and this conflict as the last final strike that drove the nail in. Since that conflict happened we had less instance of communication. We had less interaction as we took to the workplace procedure. Suddenly we had developed different interests and what had our fun been before was not making sense to the other. Although we continued to be with one another from time to time and many thought that our relationships was normal, I knew inside myself that it was not working and non of us was working to save the situation. We reached as stagnation stage and none of us talked about our relationship again. Sometime we would be together and spend a lot of time without talking. In the office our interaction were reduced and even when we interacted, we talked about office matters most of the time. With time we started to avoid each other. There were efforts to reduce face to face conversation with the other and in case I needed something from the manager I would either send the secretary or if she was busy, I would use the office phone. I also noted that she had the same attitude and she reduced the number of trips she had been making to my office and the phone line became active as the main communication channel. At the end, the termination of our relationship was natural. We stopped seeing each. I used my secretary a lot when I wanted anything from the manager’s office. We simple ended our relationship like that and though with difficult, we tried our best to remain coworkers until the date she left the company for another. Up to date I feel that we didn’t hand our conflict the way it was supposed to have been handled. We didn’t pay attention to the fine details of our relationship and we were too emotional in trying to find a solution to it. But it was compounded by the fact that it had emanated from another conflict and this had the effect of an outsider who had more power than us. The nature of the conflict was also difficult as there were protocols or work procedures that had been overtaken by our emotional involvement.

The Characteristics And Applications Of Manets Computer Science Essay

The Characteristics And Applications Of Manets Computer Science Essay Chapter 1 The advent of ubiquitous computing and the creation of new, powerful, efficient, portable computing devices have focused the importance of mobile and wireless networking. Mobile wireless communications and networking is an emerging technology that allows users to access information and services electronically at any time, regardless of their geographic positions. There are two types of wireless networks: infrastructure based wireless networks and infrastructure-less wireless networks (ad hoc networks). The infrastructure based wireless networks have routers and gateways as stationary components to which mobile nodes within the network connect. Mobile nodes connect to the nearest base station whose communication radius covers the area that the nodes are in. When a mobile node moves out of the coverage area of a base station, it is handed off to a new base station that covers the area that the node is now in. Cellular phone technology is a typical example of an infrastructure network. The second type of wireless network is the ad hoc network. The term ad hoc tends to different forms and can be mobile, stand alone, or networked[1]. A Mobile Ad hoc NETwork (MANET) is a self-organized wireless communication short lived network that contains collection of mobile nodes. The mobile nodes communicate with one another by wireless radio links without the use of any pre-established fixed communication network infrastructure or centralized administration, such as base stations or access points, and with no human intervention [2, 3, 5, 6, 7]. Self-organizing means that MANETs have the ability to spontaneously form a network of mobile nodes or hosts, merged together or partitioned into separate networks on-the-fly depending on the networking needs and dynamically handle the joining or leaving of nodes in the network. The major objectives of self organized MANET are: scalability, reliability, and availability. Mobile nodes are low capacity autonomous computing devices that are capable of roaming independently. Because of the fact that nodes are mobile, the network topology changes rapidly and unpredictably over time. Each mobile node acts as both a host and a specialized router to relay information (forward packets) to other mobile nodes. The success of the communication highly depends on the other nodes cooperation. The nodes themselves are responsible for dynamically discovering other nodes to communicate in radio range. Figure 1.1: Heterogeneous Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) Typical MANET nodes are Laptops, PDAs, Pocket PCs, Cellular Phones, Internet Mobil Phones, Palmtops or any other mobile wireless devices. These devices are typically lightweight and battery operated. Figure 1.1 illustrates an example of a heterogeneous MANET and its communication technology which contains one PDA, one pocket PC, one laptop, one mobile phone and one mobile device. Since mobile phone is outside pocket PCs transmission range, the data from pocket PC to mobile phone must be retransmitted by laptop. 1.1.1 Characteristics of MANETs The main characteristics of MANETs are: the complete lack of centralized control, lack of association among nodes, rapid mobility of hosts, frequent dynamically varying network topology, shared broadcast radio channel, insecure operating environment, physical vulnerability and limited availability of resources, such as CPU processing capacity, memory power, battery power, and bandwidth [2, 6, 7, 8]. Dynamic Network Topologies: The nodes in MANETs are free to move independently in any direction. The networks wireless topology may change frequently and randomly at unpredictable times and primarily consists of bidirectional links. Low Bandwidth: These networks have lower capacity and shorter transmission range than fixed infrastructure networks. The throughput of wireless communication is lesser than wired communication because of the effect of the multiple access, fading, noise, and interference conditions. Limited Battery Power: The nodes or hosts operate on small batteries and other exhaustible means of energy. So, energy conservation is the most important design optimization criteria. Decentralized Control: Due to unreliable links, the working of MANET depends upon cooperation of participating nodes. Thus, implementation of any protocol that involves a centralized authority or administrator becomes difficult. Unreliable Communications: The shared-medium nature and unstable channel quality of wireless links may result in high packet-loss rate and re-routing instability, which is a common phenomenon that leads to throughput drops in multi-hop networks. This implies that the security solution in wireless ad hoc networks cannot rely on reliable communication. Weak Physical Protection: MANETs are more prone to physical security threats than fixed-cable nets. Mobile nodes are usually compact, soft and hand-held in nature. Today, portable devices are getting smaller and smaller. They could get damaged or lost or stolen easily and misused by an adversary. The increased possibility of different types of attacks should be carefully considered. Scalability: Due to the limited memory and processing power on mobile devices, the scalability is a key problem when we consider a large network size. Networks of 10,000 or even 100,000 nodes are envisioned, and scalability is one of the major design concerns. 1.1.2 Applications of MANETs There are many applications of MANETs. The domain of applications for MANETs is diverse, ranging from small, static networks that are constrained by power sources to large-scale, mobile, highly dynamic networks. Significant examples include establishing survivable, efficient, dynamic communication for: network-centric military/battlefield environments, emergency/rescue operations, disaster relief operations, intelligent transportation systems, conferences, fault-tolerant mobile sensor grids, smart homes, patient monitoring, environment control, and other security sensitive applications. Most of these applications demand a specific security guarantees and reliable communication [2, 5, 7, 9]. Some well known applications are: Military Tactical Operations: For fast and possibly short term establishment of military communications and troop deployments in hostile and/or unknown environments. Search and Rescue Operations: For communication in areas with little or no wireless infrastructure support. Disaster Relief Operations: For communication in environments where the existing infrastructure is destroyed or left inoperable. Law Enforcement: For secure and fast communication during law enforcement operations. Commercial Use: For enabling communications in exhibitions, conferences and large gatherings. For some business scenarios, the need for collaborative computing might be more important outside office environments than inside a building. After all, it is often the case where people do need to have outside meetings to cooperate and exchange information on a given project. 1.1.3 Routing in MANETs Node mobility has a large impact on the behavior of ad hoc networks. The nodes in the network are free to move independently in any direction to change the routes. Every node in MANET acts as a router that discovers and maintains routes in the network. The nodes themselves are responsible for dynamically discovering other nodes to communicate. When a node wants to communicate with a node outside its transmission range, a multi-hop routing strategy is used which involves some intermediate nodes. The networks wireless topology changes frequently and randomly at unpredictable times. In order to allow truly spontaneous, infrastructure-less networking and efficient end-to-end communication with the network of nodes, a routing protocol is used to discover the optimal routes between the nodes. Hence, the primary challenge is to establish a correct and efficient route between a pair of nodes and to ensure the correct and timely delivery of packets. The routing protocols meant for wired networks cannot be used for MANETs because routing in MANETs is nontrivial due to the highly dynamic nature of the mobile nodes. Route construction should be done with a minimum of overhead and bandwidth consumption. An extensive number of research works on designing the various routing protocols proactive, reactive, and hybrid have been proposed in the literature and widely evaluated for efficient routing of packets [3]. However, they do not address possible threats aiming at the disruption of the protocol itself and often are vulnerable to node misbehavior. A node dropping all the packets is considered as malicious node or selfish nodes. A malicious node misbehaves because it intends to damage network functioning. A selfish node does so because it wants to save battery life for its own communication by simply not participating in the routing protocol or by not executing the packet forwarding. A malicious node could falsely advertise very attractive routes and thereby convince other nodes to route their messages via that malicious node. With the lack of a priori trust between nodes, current ad hoc routing protocols are completely insecure and optimized only to spread routing information quickly as the network changes [4]. 1.1.4 Security in MANETs Security is an essential service for MANET because all network services are configured on-the-fly. When the security of a given MANET architecture is not properly designed from the beginning, it is difficult to achieve the security goals in practical networks during the network deployment [12, 13]. To secure a MANET, one usually considers the objectives confidentiality (privacy), availability, integrity, authenticity and non-repudiation. Confidentiality ensures that secret information in the network is never revealed to unauthorized nodes. i.e. the assurance that data is not disclosed to unauthorized parties. Availability ensures that the requested network services, such as bandwidth and connectivity, are available in a timely manner and service is not denied to authorize users. i.e. the assurance that data is readily accessible. Integrity ensures that message or packet being transferred between nodes is not altered or corrupted. i.e. the assurance that data is genuine. Authentication ensures the correct identity of the peer node it is communicating with. Non-repudiation ensures that the originator of a message cannot falsely deny having sent the message. i.e. the assurance that a node cannot later deny the data was sent by it. Node mobility in a MANET poses many security problems and vulnerable to different types of security attacks than conventional wired and wireless networks due to their open medium, dynamic network topology, absence of central administration, distributed cooperation, constrained capability, and lack of clear line of defense. The unconstrained nature of a wireless medium of MANETs allows the attackers for interception, injection, and interference of communication. Without proper security, mobile hosts are easily captured, compromised and hijacked by malicious nodes. Malicious nodes behavior may deliberately disrupt the network so that the whole network will be suffering from packet losses. Damages include leaking secret information, message contamination and node impersonation. Before MANETs are successfully deployed, security issues must be addressed. Usually, cryptographic techniques are used for secure communications in wired and wireless networks. The method of using security solutions of traditional wired networks is not suitable for providing security in MANETs. The main problem of any public-key based security system is to make each users public key available to others in such a way that its authenticity is verifiable. Conventional security solutions to provide public key management is implemented with public key infrastructure (PKI), in which a trusted third party (TTP) holds the public key certificates of all participating entities and acts as an online certification authority (CA) to provide a public key verification service. MANETs do not provide on-line access to trusted authorities or to centralized servers. Implementing public key management and certificate distribution is more challenging due to the problematic key exchange, session handling , absence of any infrastructure and centralized services, frequent node mobility, wireless link instability, possible network partitions, and configuration of all network services on-the-fly. For these reasons, traditional security solutions that require on-line trusted authorities or certificate repositories are not well suited for securing MANETs. Use of public key cryptography and certificates is one of the effective ways of securing a MANET. The main security problems that need to be dealt with in MANETs are: the secure storage of key/data in the devices; the authentication of devices that wish to communicate to each other; the secure key establishment of a session key among authenticated devices; and the secure routing in multi-hop networks [4]. 1.1.5 Security Attacks in MANETs Security means protecting the privacy (confidentiality), availability, integrity and non-repudiation. Security implies the identification of potential attacks, threats and vulnerability of a certain system from unauthorized access, use, modification or destruction. A security attack is any action that compromises or bypasses the security of information illegally or in an unauthorized way. The attack may alter, release, or deny data [10, 11, 14]. The attacks on the MANETs can be broadly classified into two categories: passive attacks and active attacks as shown in Figure 1.2. Both passive and active attacks can be made on any layer of the network protocol stack [3]. Figure 1.2: Types of security attacks Passive Attacks: A passive attack attempts to retrieve valuable information by listening to traffic channel without proper authorization, but does not affect system resources and the normal functioning of the network. Figure 1.3 shows a schematic description of a passive attacker C, eavesdropping on the communication channel between A and B. Figure 1.3: A passive attack The different types of passive attacks are eavesdropping (information leakage), traffic monitoring, and analysis. Passive attacks are very difficult to detect because they do not involve any alteration of the data. The emphasis in dealing with passive attacks is on prevention rather than detection. One of the solutions to the problem is to use powerful encryption mechanism to encrypt the data being transmitted, thereby making it impossible for the attacker to get useful information from the data overheard. Eavesdropping (information leakage) is a very easy passive attack in the radio transmission environment, where malicious nodes capture all traffic, including routing traffic, and thus obtain routing information. When one sends a message over the wireless medium, an attacker equipped with a suitable transceiver in the radio range of the transmission can intercept and capture all traffic including the sensitive routing information. The sender or the intended receiver has no means of detecting if the transmission has been eavesdropping in the radio transmission by the adversary who do not physically connect to the medium. Traffic monitoring collects information of network nodes such as the identities and locations of nodes and the amount of data transmitted among them. Traffic analysis means that a malicious node analyses all captured/received traffic in order to extract information about the characteristics of transmission, such as, which nodes are communicating frequently or exchange huge amounts of data. This information could be exploited to launch further attacks. Active Attacks: An active attack attempts to alter or destroy system resources and the data being exchanged in the network by injecting or modifying arbitrary packets, thus gain authentication and tries to affect or disrupt the normal functioning of the network services. An active attack involves information interruption, modification, or fabrication. Figure 1.4: An active attack As shown in Figure 1.4, an active attacker C can listen, modify, and inject messages into the communication channel between A and B. Active attacks can be either internal or external [5]. External attacks are carried out by nodes that do not belong to the network. These attacks are launched by adversaries who are not initially authorized to participate in the network operations and access the resources without authorization. External attacks usually aim to cause network congestion, denying access to specific network function or to disrupt the whole network operations. Bogus packets injection, denial of service, and impersonation are some of the attacks that are usually initiated by the external attackers. Internal attacks are from compromised nodes that are part of the network. Compared with external attacks, internal attacks are more serious and hard to detect because the attackers know valuable and secret information from compromised or hijacked nodes and possess privileged access rights to the network resources. Active attacks, whether carried out by an external adversary or an internal compromised node, involves actions such as impersonation (masquerading or spoofing), modification, fabrication and replication. The active attacks are classified into different types: MAC Layer attacks, Network Layer attacks, Transportation Layer attacks, Application Layer attacks and Multi Layer attacks as shown in Figure 1.5. MAC Layer Attacks: Jamming Attack In this form of attack, the adversary initially keeps monitoring the wireless medium in order to determine the frequency at which the receiver node is receiving signals from the sender. It then transmits signals on that frequency so that error free reception at the receiver is hindered [3]. Figure 1.5: Classification of security attacks Network Layer Attacks: Wormhole Attack In this attack, two compromised nodes can communicate with each other by a private network connection. A malicious node captures packets from one location in the network and tunnels these packets to the other malicious node at another location. The second malicious node is then expected to replay the tunneled packets locally. The tunnel between two colluding attackers is referred to as a wormhole. The wormhole can drop packets by short-circuiting the normal flow of routing packets or it can selectively forward packets to avoid detection [15, 16, 17]. Black Hole Attack A black hole attack is a kind of denial of service where a malicious node attracts all packets by falsely claiming (advertising) a shortest path to the destination node whose packets it wants to intercept and then absorb them without forwarding to the destination [15]. i.e. a malicious node falsely advertise itself as having the shortest path to the destination node whose packets it wants to intercept causing all nodes around it to route packets towards it. Sinkhole Attack In a sinkhole attack, the adversarys goal is to attract nearly all the traffic from a particular area through a compromised node, creating a metaphorical sinkhole with the adversary at the center. Because nodes on or near the path that packets follow have many opportunities to tamper with application data [18, 19]. One motivation for mounting a sinkhole attack is that it makes selective forwarding trivial by ensuring that all traffic in the targeted area flows through a compromised node, an adversary can selectively suppress or modify packets originating from any node in the area. Gray Hole Attack A gray hole attack is a variation of the black hole attack, where the malicious node is not initially malicious, it turns malicious sometime later. In this attack, an attacker drops all data packets but it lets control messages to route through it [20, 21]. This selective dropping makes gray hole attacks much more difficult to detect than black hole attack. Byzantine Attack In this attack, a compromised intermediate node or a set of compromised intermediate nodes works in collusion and collectively carries out attacks such as creating routing loops, routing packets on non-optimal paths, and selectively dropping packets. Byzantine failures are hard to detect because throughput of attacker nodes as same as other nodes [22]. Information Disclosure Attack In this, a compromised node attempts to reveal confidential or important information regarding the network topology (the structure of the network), geographic locations of nodes, or optimal routes to unauthorized nodes in the network [7][23]. Resource Consumption Attack In this attack, a malicious node deliberately tries to consume/waste away the resources of other nodes present in the network by requesting excessive route discovery (unnecessary route request control messages), very frequent generation of beacon packets, or by forwarding unnecessary packets (stale information) to that node. The resources that are targeted are battery power, bandwidth, and computational power, which are only limitedly available in MANETs [24, 25]. Man-In-The-Middle Attack In this, the attacker exists as a neighbor to any one node in the routing path and alters data that is being transmitted and injects modified packet into network. i.e. a malicious node impersonates the receiver with respect to the sender, and the sender with respect to the receiver, without having either of them realize that they have been attacked with an intension to read or modify the messages between two parties [12]. Neighbor Attack In this attack, upon receiving a packet, an intermediate node records its ID in the packet before forwarding the packet to the next node. An attacker, however, simply forwards the packet without recording its ID in the packet to make two nodes that are not within the communication range of each other believe that they are neighbors (i.e., one-hop away from each other), resulting in a disrupted route. The goal of neighbor attackers is to disrupt multicast routes by making two nodes that are in fact out of each others communication range believe that they can communicate directly with each other [15]. Routing Attacks In this attack, attackers try to alter the routing information and data in the routing control packet. There are several types of routing attacks, such as routing table overflow attack, routing table poisoning attack, packet replication attack, route cache poisoning attack, and rushing attack, mounted on the routing protocol which are aimed at disrupting the operation of the network [3]. Ã ¢-Â ºRouting Table Overflow Attack In this attack, an adversary node advertises routes to non-existing authorized nodes present in the network. The main objective of such an attack is to cause an overflow of the routing tables, which would, in turn, prevent the creation of entries corresponding to new routes to authorized nodes. Proactive routing protocols are more vulnerable to this attack compared to reactive routing protocols. Ã ¢-Â ºRouting Table Poisoning Attack In this attack, a malicious node sends false routing updates to other uncompromised nodes. Such an attack may result in suboptimal routing, network congestion or even make some part of the network inaccessible. Ã ¢-Â ºPacket Replication Attack In this attack, an adversary node replicates stale packets. This consumes additional bandwidth and battery power resources available to the nodes and also causes unnecessary confusion in the routing process. Ã ¢-Â ºRoute Cache Poisoning Attack This attack occurs when nodes are in the updating mode of their tables route. Information stored in the routing tables deleted, changed, and injected with false information. Ã ¢-Â ºRushing Attack In this case, an adversary can rush some routing packets towards the destination, leading to problems with routing. i.e. an adversary node which receives a route request packet from the source node floods the packet quickly throughout the network before other nodes which also receive the same route request packet can react. On demand routing protocols that use route discovery process are vulnerable to this type of attack [26]. Stealth Attacks Stealth attacks are classified into two classes. The first class of attacks attempts to hi-jack or perform traffic analysis on filtered traffic to and from victim nodes. These attacks are mounted, for example, by the modification of routing information. An attacker can divert traffic by using authentic routing messages to fool honest nodes into disrupting their routing tables. The second class partitions the network and reduces good put by disconnecting victim nodes in several ways. For example, the attacker can route a large amount of data through the victim node. This may totally consume the nodes energy resources or create a perception of unavailability due the large quantities of messages being dropped by the victim. Consequently the node under attack will not be used by neighboring routers and becomes isolated. The methods are referred to as stealth attacks since they minimize the cost of launching the attacks and reduce the visibility of the attacker [27]. Transportation Layer Attacks: Session Hijacking Attack Session hijacking is the major transport layer attack. Here, an adversary takes control over a session between two nodes. Since most authentication processes are carried out only at the start of a session, once the session between two nodes gets established, the adversary node masquerades as one of the end nodes of the session and hijacks the session. Session hijacking occurs on two levels: the network level and application level. Application Layer Attacks: Repudiation Attack Repudiation attack is the main application layer level attack. Repudiation refers to the denial or attempted denial by a node involved in a communication of having participated in all or part of the communication [3]. Non-repudiation is one of the important requirements for a security protocol in any communication network and assures that a node cannot later deny the data was sent by it. Multi Layer Attacks: Multi-layer attacks are those that could occur in any layer of the network protocol stack. Denial of service, impersonation or sybil attack, manipulation of network traffic, device tampering, jellifish attack and eclipse attack are some of the common multi-layer attacks. Denial of Service Attack In this attack, an adversary always attempts to prevent legitimate and authorized users of network services from accessing those services, where legitimate traffic cannot reach the target nodes. Denial of Service (DoS) attacks are against CPU power, battery power and transmission bandwidth. A malicious node may launch a DoS attack against another node by requesting routes from that node, or by forwarding unnecessary packets to that node in an attempt to wear down (draining) the other nodes batteries. A DoS attack can be carried out in many ways and against any layer in the network protocol stack, namely, physical layer, link layer, and network layer [4, 12, 31]. Sybil Attack This attack is also known as masquerade or impersonation or spoofing attack. In this attack, a single malicious node attempts to take out the identity of other nodes in the network by advertising false/fake routes. i.e. an attacker pretends to have multiple identities obtained either by impersonating (forges) other nodes or by making use of false identities. It then attempts to send packets over network with identity of other nodes making the destination believe that the packet is from original source [28]. Sybil attacks are classified into three categories: direct/indirect communication, fabricated/stolen identity, and simultaneity. In the direct communication, Sybil nodes communicate directly with legitimate nodes, whereas in the indirect communication, messages sent to Sybil nodes are routed through malicious nodes. An attacker can fabricate a new identity or it can simply steal it after destroying or temporarily disabling the impersonated node. All Sybil identities can participate simultaneously in the network or they may be cycled through [29]. Misrouting Attack This attack is also known as manipulation of network traffic attack. This is a very simple way for a node to disturb the protocol operation by announcing that it has better route than the existing one. In the misrouting attack, a non-legitimate node redirects the routing message and sends data packet to the wrong destination. This type of attack is carried out by modifying metric value of a route or by altering control message fields of a route or modifying the final destination address of the data packet or by forwarding a data packet to the wrong next hop in the route to the destination [30]. Device Tampering Attack (Weak Physical Protection) Unlike nodes in a wired network, nodes in MANETs are usually compact, soft, and hand-held in nature. They could get damaged or lost or stolen easily and misused by an adversary. In military applications, mobile nodes are subject to capturing, compromising and hijacking. In such hostile environments, it is almost impossible to provide perfect physical protection [3]. Jellyfish Attack A jellyfish attacker first needs to intrude into the multicast forwarding group. It then delays data packets unnecessarily for some amount of time before forwarding them. This result in significantly high end-to-end delays and, thus, degrades the performance of real-time applications [31]. Eclipse Attack A pattern of misbehavior called an eclipse attack, which consists of the gradual poisoning of good (uncompromised) nodes routing tables with links to a conspiracy of adversarial nodes (compromised nodes) [12, 15, 18]. 1.1.6 Security Solutions in MANET Various kinds of security attacks are possible on ad hoc routing. Due to inherent characteristics, MANETs are highly susceptible to malicious attacks. To overcome these attacks, available security solutions are used. Attack prevention measures can be used as the first line of defense to reduce the possibilities of attacks. There are two types of security solutions: preventive and detective to overcome these attacks. Preventive solutions are typically based on message encryption techniques, while detective solutions include the application of digital signature and cryptographic hash functions. The prevention schemes proposed for external attacks are key and trust management, whereas the countermeasures for internal attacks are secure routing protocols [5, 7]. 1.2 Motivation of the Work Providing security for MANETs is a difficult problem. The method of using security solutions of a traditional wired network is not suitable. All those methods require online trusted authority. In contrast with conventional networks, MANETs do not provide on-line access to trusted authorities or to centralized servers. For this reason, key management is particularly difficult to implement in such networks. However, key management is deemed as the fundamental essential part of any secure communication. There are two ways to introduce security in MANETs: 1. through a single authority domain, where certification and keys are issued by a single authority, and 2. through full self-organization, where security does not rely on any trusted authority or fixed server. Conventional public key management is implemented with public key infrastructure, in which a trusted third party (TTP) holds the public key certificates of all participating entities and acts as an online